We read about the First Crusade and how the Latin Christians from the Western Europe wrestled control of the Holy City from the Muslims and established four Crusader states, Antioch and Edessa in Syria, Tripoli and Jerusalem in Palestine by 1099. This miraculous victory of the crusaders might have fuelled the subsequent crusades spanned over the next two centuries; they could have reasoned that by God’s mercy a spectacular and miraculous victory was always possible. Most of the Crusaders from the first episode returned to Europe in 1099 and only some 300 knights and 2000 infantry men were left with King Godfrey to defend Jerusalem. By July 1100 Godfrey died of food poisoning, a foul play or an accident. His brother Baldwin of Boulogne took up the reign. Baldwin, to be appointed as king, required anointing by the Pope or the Patriarch who would pour over the holy oil on the ruler’s head. This would set the ruler apart from other men, endowed with power of divine sanction! This ritual was carried in December 1100 by the Patriarch. There were internal rivalries within these four states and civil wars between them weakened their strength.
By 1119 two religious military orders came to be organized
out of the knights, combining both the ideals of knighthood and monasticism,
taking vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. One, composed of French knights
known as the Order of the Temple of Solomon or the Templers and the second, the
Hospital of St. John, or the Hospitallers, dedicated to John the Baptist, in
whose name a hospital was being run in the Holy Land with the support of the
Italian merchants. These two orders were to take care of the pilgrims to the Holy
Land, but would become increasingly involved in the crusades over for the next
two centuries.
The Second Crusade: 1147-1150
In 1144 Muslims under Zengi, leader of Seljuk Turks
recaptured Edessa in Syria and on the request of the Frankish Crusader States
Pope Eugene III in Europe announced a crusade in 1145 which was preached by
Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux. The protection of the Eastern Christians in Levant
was the objective and the assurance of the remission of sins of those who take
part in the Crusade or die in the process was promised by the Pope and the
families and properties left behind were to be protected and safeguarded by the
church. Some 60,000 crusaders assembled, led by King Conrad III of Germany and
King Louis VII of France. This is the first time kings would lead the Crusades.
As they reached Constantinople in 1147
troubles began due to mutual suspicion between Eastern Byzantine Christians and
the Western Latin Christians, though the Byzantine Emperor Manuel had made all
arrangements of provisions for the Crusaders and provided guides to navigate
the troops through the difficult terrain. But the Latin armies proceeded
separately without following the advice of the Emperor and were decimated by
the Muslim forces of Zengi. Germans retreated to Constantinople and King Conrad
returned to Europe in 1147; so also the French in 1148.
The Crusaders who came from England by sea in a fleet of 200 vessels in 1147 landed in the Iberian Peninsula and helped the King of Portugal to recapture their city Lisbon from the Muslims and also helped the King of Spain to push the Muslim conquerors to a large extent. That was the only successful outcome of the Second Crusade, which was fought on multiple fronts. Muslims in Levant had become stronger in the last 40-50 years, united under strong leaders and they had captured Damascus in 1154 and Egypt in 1168 and had become much more powerful and resourceful with Egypt serving as their bread basket.
The Third Crusade:
1187-1192
Muslims had become stronger under Sultan Saladin of Ayyubid dynasty,
who had taken Jerusalem from the Franks in 1187 in the battle of Hattin, which
was a major debacle for the Crusader king. They lost the Holy City and the Holy
Cross to the Muslims. Sultan also took control of cities like Acre, Tiberius,
Caesarea, Nazareth and Jaffa. Saladin had won Damascus in 1174 and Aleppo in
1183 and had become a formidable enemy. Third Crusade was called in response to
the loss of the Holy City. The call was given by Pope Gregory VIII in 1187.
Three monarchs responded this time; Frederick I Barbarossa, King of Germany and
the Holy Roman Emperor; Philip II of France and Richard I the Lionhearted, the
King of England.
On the way King Barbarossa accidentally fell into a river
while crossing it on horseback near Cilicia and drowned in 1190. The German
army decimated by dysentery and the loss of their king returned to Germany.
King Philip and King Richard arrived by sea. Richard the Lionhearted was an
experienced warrior and known for his personal courage and was wise in his
decisions. On his way to Sicily to bring some 60,000 horses he took 100 ships
and in the process took possession of Sicily. He conquered Cyprus by 1191,
which will remain in Crusaders’ hands till the end and was of great support to
them in the subsequent Crusades. Philip also joined Richard with his own
troops. They attacked Acre and wrestled it from the hands of Muslims in July
1191. Philip returned to Europe after this due to some emergencies in his kingdom
in Europe.
Now the mantle of leadership fell solely on Richard. They
besieged and won the battle of Arsuf in September 1191. Richard suggested that
they should attack and take Egypt first, then with that strength retake
Jerusalem. But others were not agreeable. Hence they marched to Jerusalem but turned
back after coming quite close to Jerusalem. Again they came close to Jerusalem,
having fortified the forts in between, but due to differences of opinion they
turned back. If only they had attacked they could have easily captured
Jerusalem. But Richard was not entirely in favor of it, for he reasoned that it
would involve loss of many lives and even after recovery, the Franks in the
kingdom of Jerusalem were not in a position to protect it from the assaults by
the Muslims.
The Third Crusade ended in failure for Jerusalem was not
taken, but Richard negotiated and made a peace agreement; Acre and Tyre were
kept by the Franks; Ascalon was given up to the Muslims; safety of Christian
pilgrims to Jerusalem was ensured. In spite of all the amazing stories woven
around Richard the Lionhearted and Saladin the Sultan, little was achieved and it
is surprising to learn that both never met, either in war or in peace
negotiations.
Fourth Crusade: 1202-1204
This Crusade was called by Pope Innocent III with the
objective of getting back Jerusalem from Muslim’s hands, where was lost in
1187. Indulgences were announced, sins forgiven not only for the participants
of the Crusade but also for those who contributed money to the Crusade. Here
are sown seeds that would grow into a huge scandal of the Catholic Church,
which drove Martin Luther to nail his 95 theses to the church door of
Wittenberg, Germany in 1527 initiating Reformation. Saladin had died in 1193 and
Richard the Lionhearted in 1199.
Many nobles responded to the call and the armies set sail
from Venice to Egypt, now that the idea sowed by Richard that the Ayyubid’s
dynasty should first be attacked at Egypt and from there to capture Jerusalem.
However, troubles beset the Crusade as the rapacious traders of Venice insisted
that the armies pay for the fleet before they embarked - silver marks of 85,000
for 240 ships. This amount was double the income of the French kingdom at that
time! When the Crusaders could not pay this amount, as the number of promised crusaders
did not turn up at Venice, the Venetians made a deal with them, suggesting that
they capture first the city of Zara on the Dalmatian coast for the Italians, so
that Venetians could rule the waters, overtaking their competitors from Pisa
and Genoa, the other Italian cities. The Crusaders sacked the Christian city of
Zara in November 1202. Pope summarily excommunicated both the Crusaders and the
Venetians for this sacrilegious act of attacking Christians.
Venice merchants also wanted to depose the ruling Emperor of
Byzantine Empire and install someone who was more favorable to them and grant
special privileges in trade within the Empire and to get ahead of Pisa and
Genoa. The Crusaders ignominiously turned on Constantinople, may be due the
desire for money and loot or due to the goading of the Venetian merchants, or
to take revenge for the unhelpful attitude of the Emperors to the previous
crusades. They attacked the city in June 1203, with 4500 knights 14000 infantry
and 25,000 Venetians. Emperor Alexios III fled the city and Constantinople fell
in April 1204. What his great grandfather Alexios of the First Crusade feared
had come true.
The Crusaders installed the Latin count Baldwin of Flanders as the Emperor, the first Latin Emperor of Constantinople. They slaughtered the 4,00,000 inhabitants of the city, raped, massacred, torched buildings, desecrated churches, stole religious relics, melted the gold and carried it all as war booty to Europe. That much for the Crusaders’ avowed goal of supporting the Christians in the East from their enemies Muslims! In reality they became their enemy and sacked the city mercilessly. Christians turned against Christians; so much for Holy Wars and their religious fervor.
After fifty years the Byzantines took back their kingdom, but it was a shadow of its former glory.
Fifth Crusade: 1217-1221
Call for this Crusade was given in 1208 by Pope Innocent III and his successor Pope Honorius III to avenge the Christians in Levant and to free Jerusalem which was still in the hands of Muslims. A crusading army led by King Andrew II of Hungary and Duke Leopold II of Austria in 1208 came to nothing. In 1218 a German army led by Oliver of Paderborn and a mixed army led by Count William I of Holland took up the arms. Their plan was also to attack Cairo, the capital of Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt and then march to free Jerusalem. On landing in Egypt they first attacked and occupied the port of Damietta on the mouth of the river Nile. Then they marched towards Cairo in July 1221 and laid siege to Al-Mansoura, a town en route. When a section of the knights in the vanguard charged forth without orders from the leaders; they were annihilated by the Muslims and the entire force was forced to retreat to Damietta, where they sued for peace and signed truce for eight years with Kamil, son of Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, Syria and Palestine. This Crusade also ended in utter failure.
Let’s see the fate of the other four crusades in the next
blog. In all these the fate of Jerusalem, the Holy City of the Christians hung
in balance and still in the hands of Muslims.
